Scholarly Citations: The Roots of Structural Racism

The following sources cite the Roots of Structural Racism Project:

• Racial Diversity and Segregation: Comparing Principal Cities, Inner-Ring Suburbs, Outlying Suburbs, and the Suburban Fringe (Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences) | February 2023
• “Racial Equity and Fair Housing.” City of San Rafael. https://www.cityofsanrafael.org/question/racial-equity-and-fair-housing/#/city/answers/racial-equity-and-fair-housing/racial-equity-and-fair-housing. 
• Gilmore, Ayanna, Devin English, and Alexandria Bauer. "The Effect of Neighborhood Segregation, on Discrimination, Racial Trauma, & Substance Use Among Black Emerging Adults.” Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development 2025 Biennial Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, May 2025. https://srcd.secure-platform.com/site/solicitations/102002/sessiongallery/94489/application/7275. 
• Elbers, Benjamin. "Did Residential Racial Segregation in the U.S. Really Increase? An Analysis Accounting for Changes in Racial Diversity." Working paper, Columbia University, 2021. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/dvutw. 
• Lichter, Daniel T., Brian C. Thiede, and Matthew M. Brooks. “Racial Diversity and Segregation: Comparing Principal Cities, Inner-Ring Suburbs, Outlying Suburbs, and the Suburban Fringe.” RSF Journal of the Social Sciences 9, no. 1 (February 2023): 26-51. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.1.02. 
• Hwang, Jackelyn and Tyler W. McDaniel. “Racialized Reshuffling: Urban Change and the Persistence of Segregation in the Twenty-First Century.” Annual Review of Sociology 8 (2022): 397-419. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-014126.
• Elliott, James R. and Zheye Wang. “Managed retreat: a nationwide study of the local, racially segmented resettlement of homeowners from rising flood risks.” Environmental Research Letters 18, no. 6 (June 2023): https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/acd654/meta#erlacd654app1. 
• Lin, Sunny C. “Segregated Patterns of Hospital Care Delivery and Health Outcomes.” JAMA Health Forum 4, no. 11 (2023): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama-health-forum/fullarticle/2812106. 
• Erete, Sheena, Jessa Dickinson, Alejandra Gonzalez, and Yolanda A. Rankin. “Unpacking the Complexities of Community-led Violence Prevention Work.” Paper presented at CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’22), New Orleans, LA, April-May 2022. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3502122. 
• Lichter, Daniel T. and Kenneth M. Johnson. "Urbanization and the Paradox of Rural Population Decline: Racial and Regional Variation." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 9 (2023): https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231221149896. 
• Frankenberg, Erica, Caprial Farrington and Kathryn A. McDermott. “Eroding Integration: 21st Century Segregation Trends in U.S. Public and Charter Schools and Implications for the Enduring Promise of Brown.” Urban Education (2025): https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859251329310. 
• Haapanen, Krista A., Brian D. Christens, Paul W. Speer, and Hannah E. Freeman. "Narrative change for health equity in grassroots community organizing: A study of initiatives in Michigan and Ohio." American Journal of Community Psychology 73, no. 3-4 (June 2024): 313-581. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajcp.12708. 
• Xu, Wei, Megan Agnew, Christina Kamis, Amy Schultz, Sarah Salas, Kristen Malecki, and Michal Engelman. "Constructing Residential Histories in a General Population-Based Representative Sample." American Journal of Epidemiology 193, no. 2 (February 2024): https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwad188. 
• Marlow, Thomas, James R. Elliott, and Scott Frickel. “Future flooding increases unequal exposure risks to relic industrial pollution.” Environmental Research Letters 17 (2022): https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac78f7. 
• KC, Smarika, Kris Clarke, and Marjaana Seppänen. “‘If I Count Everything That Is against Me. It Is My Colour. It Is That I Am a Woman’: Exploring the Lived Experiences of Racialised Older Migrant Women in Finland.” British Journal of Social Work 54, no. 1 (January 2024): 22–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcad178. 
• Bill, Kayla. “Politics, Policy Alternatives, and Potential for School Desegregation: The Case of Howard County, Maryland.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis (2025): https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737251315713. 
• Marcucci, Olivia, Tiffany Roberston, Donald Morgan, Elizabeth Lazarus, and Lisa Mitchell. “A grassroots antiracist program: The motivation and perceived growth of participants in a community-based, intergroup dialogue program.” American Journal of Community Psychology 72, no. 1-2 (September 2023): 75-88, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12682. 
• Singichetti, Bhavna, Yudan Chen Wang, Yvonne M. Golightly, Stephen W. Marshall, and Rebecca B. Naumann. “Trends and disparities in alcohol-DWI license suspensions by suspension duration, North Carolina, 2007–2016.” PLoS ONE 19, no. 9 (2024): https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310270. 
• Quist, Arbor J. L,, Xiaoxia Han, Donna D Baird, Lauren A Wise, Ganesa Wegienka, Cheryl L Woods-Giscombe, and Anissa Irvin Vines. “Life Course Racism and Depressive Symptoms among Young Black Women.” Journal of Urban Health 99 (2022): 55-66, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-021-00574-7. 
• Parisi, Domenico, Daniel T. Lichter, Shrinidhi Ambinakudige, and Christian Kelly Scott. “Racial Segregation in a Multiracial Society: BlackExclusion and Spatial Integration in US Municipalities,1990–2020.” Population, Space, and Place 31, no. 1 (January 2025):  https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2870. 
• Furth, Salim. “Is Diversity “Segregation”?” Market Urbanism. July 5, 2021. https://marketurbanism.com/2021/07/05/is-diversity-segregation/. 
• Silicon Valley Institute for Regional Studies. “Divergence Index: Share of Census Tracts by Degree of Racial Residential Segregation.” Silicon Valley Indicators, https://siliconvalleyindicators.org/data/people/talent-flows-diversity/racial-and-ethnic-composition/divergence-index/. 
• Solomon, Libby. “Where segregation has changed in DC — and where it hasn’t.” Greater Greater Washington. July 6, 2021. https://ggwash.org/view/81845/where-segregation-has-changed-in-dc-and-where-it-hasnt. 
• Scripps Media, Inc. “Detroit is the most segregated city in the U.S., new study finds.” WXYZ Detroit. June 21, 2021. https://www.wxyz.com/news/detroit-is-the-most-segregated-city-in-the-u-s-new-study-finds. 
• Crowe, Cailin. “Most major US cities have become more segregated in recent decades: report.” Smart Cities Dive. June 28, 2021. https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/news/segregated-us-cities-university-california-berkeley/602403/. 
• Ross, Ángel Mendiola. “One in 10 Bay Area Neighborhoods are Segregated Areas of White Wealth.” Bay Area Equity Atlas. July 27, 2022. https://bayareaequityatlas.org/mapping-segregation. 
• “Is Buffalo the Most Segregated City in the US?” Buffalo Research. June 12, 2022. https://buffaloresearch.com/segregated-cities/. 
• Ellis, Nicquel Terry. "Most major metropolitan areas have become more racially segregated, study shows.” CNN. June 21, 2021. https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/21/us/housing-segregation-cities-berkeley-study/index.html. 
• Mahoney, Adam. “Your City Is Probably More Segregated Than It Was in 1990, New Study Shows.” Rolling Stone. June 29, 2021. https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/segregation-environmental-justice-climate-1190954/. 
• Smith, Hayley. “California still highly segregated by race despite growing diversity, research shows.” Los Angeles Times. June 28, 2021. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-06-28/l-a-segregation-problems-unchanged-in-decades-study-shows. 
• Suddath, Claire. “U.S. Residential Segregation Is Likely to Get Worse: New Study.” Bloomberg. July 8, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2021-07-08/u-s-residential-segregation-is-likely-to-get-worse-new-study. 
• Sumida, Nami. “Is Lowell segregated? Here’s how every S.F. school scores on a racial ‘divergence’ index.” San Francisco Chronicle. August 25, 2022. https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/san-francisco-schools-17393471.php. 
• “Memphis: One Of Most Segregated U.S. Cities and Regions.” Smart City Memphis. July 6, 2021. https://www.smartcitymemphis.com/2021/07/memphis-one-of-most-segregated-u-s-cities/.
• Orenstein, Natalie. “How segregated is your Oakland neighborhood?” Oaklandside. June 28, 2021. https://oaklandside.org/2021/06/28/how-segregated-is-your-oakland-neighborhood/. 

The following sources are important, influential, or notable research on residential segregation we wish to share or archive (many of which we cite in our work): 

Racial Residential Segregation

• Massey, Douglass S. and Nancy Denton. “The Dimensions of Residential Segregation.” Social Forces 67, no. 2 (December 1988): 281–315. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/67.2.281.
• Reardon, Sean F. and David O’Sullivan. “Measures of Spatial Segregation.” Sociological Methodology, 34, no. 1 (December 2004): 121-62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0081-1750.2004.00150.x.
• Fischer, Claude S., Gretchen Stockmayer, Jon Stiles, and Michael Hout. “Distinguishing the geographic levels and social dimensions of U.S. metropolitan segregation, 1960–2000.” Demography 41 (February 2004): 37–59. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2004.0002. 
• Brown, Lawrence A. and Su-Yeul Chung. “Spatial segregation, segregation indices and the geographical perspective.” Population, Space, and Place 12, no. 2 (March/April 2006): 125-43. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.403. 
• Logan, Trevon and John M. Parman. “The National Rise in Residential Segregation.” Journal of Economic History 77, no. 1 (February 2017): 127-70. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050717000079. 
• Trounstine, Jessica. “The Geography of Inequality: How Land Use Regulation Produces Segregation.” American Political Science Review 114, no. 2 (February 2020): 443-55. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000844. 
• Liu, XiaoHang and Sally Shatford. “Affordable Housing and Residential Segregation in San Francisco: A Spatial Analysis between 2000 and 2015.” Applied Housing Research Initiative Working Paper 2019-2, San Francisco State University, October 2019. https://pace.sfsu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/affordable-housing-and-residential-segregation-in-sf-xiaohang-liu-and-sally-shatford-oct-14-2019.pdf. 
• Pamuk, Ayse and Jeremy Hill. “Inclusionary Housing in San Francisco: Mapping Racial Integration, Neighborhood Change, and Affordability.” Applied Housing Research Initiative Working Paper 2019-1, San Francisco State University, October 2019. https://pace.sfsu.edu/sites/default/files/affordable-housing-and-residential-segregation-in-sf-xiaohang-liu-and-sally-shatford-oct-14-2019.pdf. 
• Cutler, David M. and Edward L. Glaeser. “Are Ghettos Good or Bad?,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 112, no. 3 (August 1997): https://doi.org/10.1162/003355397555361. 
• Lichter, Daniel T., Domenico Parisi, and Michael C. Taquino. “Toward a New Macro-Segregation? Decomposing Segregation within and between Metropolitan Cities and Suburbs.” American Sociological Review 80, no. 4 (August 2015): 843-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122415588558. 

Economic Residential Segregation

• Florida, Richard and Charlotta Mellander. Segregated City: The Geography of Economic Segregation in America’s Metros. Toronto, ON: Martin Prosperity Institute, 2015. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:868382/FULLTEXT01.pdf. 
• Reardon, Sean F. and Kendra Bischoff. Growth in the Residential Segregation of Families by Income, 1970-2009. New York: US2010 Project-Russell Sage Foundation Brown University, 2013.
• Reardon, Sean F. and Kendra Bischoff. The Continuing Increase in Income Segregation, 2007-2012. Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Education Policy Analysis, 2016. https://cepa.stanford.edu/content/continuing-increase-income-segregation-2007-2012. 
• Reardon, Sean F. and Kendra Bischoff. “Income Inequality and Income Segregation.” American Journal of Sociology 116, no. 4 (January 2011): 1092–153. https://doi.org/10.1086/657114. 
• Bischoff, Kendra and Sean F. Reardon. “Residential Segregation by Income, 1970–2009.” In Diversity and Disparities: America Enters a New Century, edited by John Logan. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2014.
• Reardon, Sean F., Lindsay Fox, and Joseph Townsend, “Neighborhood Income Composition by Household Race and Income, 1990–2009,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 660, no. 1 (July 2015): 78-97, https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215576104.