Introduction to Spain

Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, occupying the majority of the Iberian Peninsula. It has a population of 48,807,137,1 with approximately 18% residing in rural areas.2 The country features a diverse range of climates: a temperate oceanic climate in the North, a hot summer Mediterranean climate in the South, a cold semi-arid climate in the East, and both hot and warm summer climates in the West. Spain is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the East and South, and the Atlantic Ocean to the West and North, and is in close proximity to North Africa, with the narrow Strait of Gibraltar separating the regions. Spain’s coastline increases the risks of sea level rising, coastal flooding, and erosion.3 Additionally, the nation faces a range of challenges, including rising temperatures that have led to more frequent heat waves, intense droughts, desertification of landscapes, wildfires, and floods.4

Spain’s economy is experiencing rapid growth, ranking fourth in GDP growth among European Union nations in 2024.5 The country’s economic landscape has improved across major sectors, with services accounting for 69.1%6 and industry 19.5% of GDP.7 Additionally, tourism is a significant contributor to the economy, with continued growth post COVID-19 and projections indicating it will constitute 16% of the GDP in 2025.8 The unemployment rate has been decreasing consistently since 2020, from 15.5%9 and is estimated to decrease to 9.9% by 2026.10 While this economic growth is promising, the country remains vulnerable to the impacts of the climate crisis. Without effective and timely action, these challenges could significantly impact the aforementioned sectors, undermining such improvements.

Mapping Climate Events & Climate-Induced Displacement

The nation of Spain is moderately vulnerable to the impacts of the climate crisis. As of 2025, it ranks 25th out of 188 countries on the new Climate Fiscal Vulnerability Index developed by Columbia Climate University.11 The development of this index and the research indicate Spain has the capacity and financial resources to respond to the climate crisis, with its largest vulnerability being climate-induced displacement, where the nation scores a 7.9 out of 10.11  

According to the IDMC, climate-induced displacement is attributed to wildfires, floods, storms, and volcanic activity.12 Between 2008 to 2019, there were 99,000 displacements and 65 disasters were reported.12 From 2020 to 2024, there were approximately 100,000 displacements and 241 disasters reported.12  In both time frames, wildfires caused the majority of climate-induced displacements, and we see the number of displaced and the frequency of disasters surge at high rates between 2020 and 2024. Spain faced the hottest year on record in 2022, paired with one of its worst years for wildfires. According to the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS), more than 315,000 hectares of land in Spain were burned by wildfires,13 and 34,000 people were displaced.12 The fires damaged infrastructure, devastated forests and farmlands, and burned 56% of the tree canopy in that given year.14  

Following wildfires, floods are the second greatest trigger climate-induced displacement in the nation. In 2024, flash floods caused by record-breaking rainfall claimed over 200 lives and displaced thousands across Spain, with Valencia being one of the hardest-hit regions.15 The torrential rain, triggered by an isolated low-pressure system, unleashed more than a year’s worth of precipitation in just a few hours.15 This extreme event exposed weaknesses in Spain’s disaster preparedness, especially in areas where rapid urban expansion was established upon natural river floodplains.16  

Extreme heatwaves are severely affecting Spain and taking the lives of many. Those who are most impacted are people from low-income backgrounds and the elderly. In 2025, between May 16 and July 13, approximately 1,180 heat-related deaths occurred, and 95% of victims were 65 or older, highlighting increased sensitivity to heat amongst the elderly population.17 Additionally, these heatwaves have intensified prolonged droughts throughout the nation. Rural communities and villages are disproportionately impacted, as they rely on wells and local water reservoirs for their water supply.18 Decreased rainfall throughout Spain has contributed to water levels dropping significantly, thus rendering the water supply unsafe for consumption.18 These communities lack the necessary infrastructure to support residents during water shortages.18 In contrast, urban areas are less affected due to access to desalination facilities and relatively robust water infrastructure.18  

Mapping the Costs of the Climate Crisis

Spain's GDP stands at $1.72 trillion and is projected to continue growing in the coming years.19 However, the impacts of the climate crisis pose significant risks to the nation's economy and its key sectors. In response to the devastating floods of 2024, the Spanish government provided 10.6 billion euros (approximately USD 12.27 billion), which included direct aid and state-backed loan guarantees for households, self-employed workers, and companies.20 Additionally, insurance losses exceeded 3.5 billion euros (approximately USD 3.8 billion).21 The increased frequency and intensity of natural disasters will take a financial toll on Spain’s economy. 

The tourism sector, which has seen consistent growth post-COVID-19, is projected to face setbacks, with climate impacts estimated to reduce its contribution to GDP by between 0.3% and 7% by the end of the century, depending on future temperature scenarios.22 The impacts are predicted to be felt most acutely in the Southern and Eastern regions, with coastal areas facing a 60% decline in demand during the summer due to increasing temperatures.23 Extreme heat has already reduced Spain’s labor productivity by 0.22% between 2000–2004 and 2017–2021,24 with agricultural workers and outdoor workers bearing the brunt of these impacts.25 For example,  a recent study discovered that climate change-related eye diseases in Spain will cost up to 1.95% of national GDP, with 36.5 % of this cost directly linked to climate variables. Southern Spain is identified as especially vulnerable due to its climatic conditions, and farmers are particularly at risk of ocular damage given the nature of their work.  Overall, Spain is projected to suffer some of the highest economic losses in Europe due to the climate crisis, with potential impacts reaching or exceeding 2.5% of GDP by the 2055–2064 period.25

Mapping Resilience and Mitigation Pathways

Spain is taking significant strides in mitigating the impacts of the climate crisis, which is reflected in climate governance development and the high 95% of Spaniards who support implementing measures to promote resilience and adaptation.26 The nation signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 and aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.27 Spain’s commitment to reducing its emissions is evident in its ability to reduce net emissions by 39.3% between 2005 and 2023, which is higher than the average EU rate of 30.5%.27

The nation has developed numerous plans and allocated significant funding to initiatives aimed at increasing resilience. The Recovery and Resilience Plan underwent amendments in October 2023, increasing the financing allocated towards strengthening the nation. The new 178 billion dollar plan is set to allocate 40% of funds towards climate related initiatives, including increasing renewable energy production and energy efficiency, development of energy-efficient social housing, and sustainable transportation.28 Funding is also set to help preserve natural landscapes and ecosystems, such as coastal areas, and improve water and waste management, emphasizing the integration of circular economy frameworks.29  

In response to the devastating floods of 2024, the nation approved legislation that allows workers to take a paid ‘climate leave’ during intense climate-related weather or catastrophes. This was put in place to protect citizens from unsafe conditions and further mandated Spanish companies to establish climate-related action plans unique to the conditions/nature of the company to protect its employees.30

Necessary Changes

Spain has demonstrated its commitment to addressing the climate crisis through initiatives that are shaped by its unique geopolitical position, geography, and historical role as a colonial power. The nation received an exemption from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to decrease military spending and allocate defense funds towards climate-responsive dual-use capabilities.31 In contrast to the pattern of NATO and other European nations, which have increased spending on military defense. In 2019, the nation established a just transition strategy that is meant to be approved every five years to ensure effective progress is being made.32 Nonetheless, the nation faces certain challenges that prevent a complete just transition from being achieved. The country’s just transition emphasizes a coal phase-out resulting in the closures of coal mines, which tend to be located in rural areas. These areas are facing significant depopulation rates, driven by a limited workforce and failure to introduce retraining opportunities and economic sectors, ultimately harming populations reliant on the coal industry.33 The nation must be committed to integrating appropriate measures to diversify coal communities and retrain fossil fuel industry workers.  

Regarding international climate action, Spain is committed to increasing climate funding by 50% yearly, by 2025, to low and middle-income partner countries.34 Additionally, the nation has provided significant funding to the Green Climate Fund35  and the Adaptation Fund,36 financial mechanisms designed to aid developing countries in addressing the climate crisis. More specifically, Spain launched the Kuali Fund in March 2025, a fund intended to support countries in Latin America, the Caribbean, and India to develop climate adaptation and mitigation pathways.37 Spain’s historical economic and political role in Latin America and the Caribbean, shaped by its colonial legacy and contemporary involvement and influence, highlights the importance of mobilizing resources and funds to support the development of these regions.