South Sudan: A Brief Introduction

South Sudan is a country in Eastern Africa. Its population of 10.7 million1 is about 79% rural.2 South Sudan has grasslands, swamps, and tropical rainforest regions.3 All of these climate zones are stretched across both banks of the Nile River, which runs from north to south through the country, along with its major tributaries, the Bahr el Ghazal, the Bahr al-Arab and the Sobat.4 Ethnic groups in South Sudan consist of the cattle-herding Dinka (who constitute about two-fifths of the population), the Nuer (who mostly live in the center-northeast), the Zande (who live in the southwest), the Bari (who live in the south), and the Shilluk and Anywa (who are mostly farmers and live in the east).5 There is also an Arab minority and a group of indigenous Nilo-Sudanese communities that live along the Nile. South Sudan is the world’s newest country, after gaining independence from Sudan in 2011.6 It is rich in mineral resources with petroleum (producing 85% of Sudanese oil before independence), aluminum, marble, iron ore, and gold.7 Despite large mineral resources, 78 percent of Sudanese households work in agriculture, fishing, and pastoralism.8 South Sudan still deals with violent conflict and displacement due to the ongoing Sudanese War, which exacerbates vulnerabilities linked to the climate crisis.

Mapping Major Climate Events and Climate-Induced Displacement

South Sudan is ranked 7th most climate vulnerable out of 179 countries.9 South Sudan is vulnerable to many climate events, the most common being weather-related disasters, such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves, as well as outbreaks of disease and earthquakes.10 Climate change has created intense flooding during the wet seasons and long-lasting droughts and wildfires during the dry season. Additionally, the southwestern region of the country (along the Nile) is favorable to tsetse flies, which lead to sleeping sickness, while the eastern region (predominantly grasslands) are affected by sand fly infestations, which cause leishmaniasis.11 Women, in particular, are more exposed to climate change disasters (since Sudanese men migrate with livestock while women remain in the home), have fewer assets, rely more on natural resources, have a high rate of illiteracy, have low professional skills and employment.12 All of these inequalities result in higher vulnerability to the effects of the climate crisis. In 2021, flooding displaced 505,544 Sudanese people and, in 2020, a similar amount (442,882) were displaced due to flooding and wildfires.13 As recently as April 2023, flooding has created a swelling in the central swamplands, forcing many Sudanese peoples to evacuate their homes along with their livestock. Limited infrastructure also heightens the calamities of these disasters as there is only one road out of the region.14 There are multiple compounding factors that worsen the effects of the climate crisis on the Sudanese people: conflict due to the ongoing Sudanese civil war, food insecurity due to flooding and drought, and water insecurity due to contaminated and disease-heavy waters.15

Mapping the Costs of the Climate Crisis

South Sudan has a GDP of $11.99 billion, making it one of Africa’s poorer countries.16 The climate crisis is already affecting South Sudanese GDP, as it contracted by 6% in 2020-2021 due to floods, locust invasions, and COVID-19.17 South Sudan gained independence after a referendum in 2011 where South Sudanese people voted (almost unanimously) for independence. This vote was fueled by tensions based on region, ethnicity, and religion. Thus, the resulting South Sudanese government only focused on building nationalism around the new South Sudan, rather than addressing existing inequalities and tension. This precipitated a civil war in 2013, with the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) assuming control and establishing a military dictatorship.18 Conflict in South Sudan is still ongoing and South Sudanese people not only have to deal with hardships imposed by climate disasters (like floods and droughts) but also must cope with violence. In 2021, 429,432 people were displaced due to conflict, a comparable number to the amount of climate refugees.13 Additionally, the climate crisis has severe effects on South Sudanese industry, especially agriculture and fishing. In South Sudan, traditional gender roles lead to men rearing the livestock and women relying on farming to provide for their family.19 With crop failures and disease, Sudanese women, due to their reliance on agriculture, will be disproportionately affected by the climate crisis. Similarly, the minority Nilo-Sudanese communities rely on fishing for their livelihood, resulting in increased vulnerability for an already impoverished community.20

Mapping Resilience and Mitigation Pathways

South Sudan’s NDC demonstrates a strong commitment to reducing 109.87 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent and sequestering a further 45 million tons by 2030.21 Their NDC focuses on reducing emissions caused by agriculture, enacting more sustainable fishing practices, and creating a circular economy.22 Due to South Sudan’s political instability and lack of economic resources, they are unable to fund their climate development alone. They have partnered with international organizations, like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), to dedicate $9 million to improving water infrastructure, fostering sustainable, climate-resilient production of crops, fodder and fuelwood, and disseminating information regarding climate change to government officials to facilitate informed decision-making.23 Regarding forced migration, the South Sudanese government has handled existing migration with force. The Dinka cattle-keeping community used to migrate seasonally to Equatoria but, due to floods, are now unable to go back to their homelands. In response to this, the government sent troops to force them back to their homes, thus sidestepping effective and equitable climate mitigation and adaptation measures in this case.24

Necessary Changes

South Sudan has demonstrated commitment to climate resilience and mitigation, joining the Paris Agreement despite turbulent politics and a lack of economic resources. Now, it is necessary for international support programs and domestic migration policy that alleviates the cause for displacement. Programs like the partnership with the UNDP and UNEP have huge potential for facilitating climate resilience in South Sudanese communities. Additionally, the South Sudan NDC outlines strong goals to climate-proof agriculture and fishing industries without decreasing the amount of jobs or affecting livelihood. One such goal involves creating agricultural hubs with closed agricultural loops, allowing them to increase the amount of arable land used while developing a circular economy.25 These kinds of mitigation strategies need to be supported by the international community and encouraged on a larger scale. Furthermore, regarding migration, the country needs to develop a stronger safety network for refugees (whether it be due to climate or conflict). Relying on force is not a viable pathway to mitigating the number of internally displaced people and it only serves to inflame tensions– instead, international funding and a political will within South Sudan can create a strong refugee support program as well as address issues that lead to displacement. Internationally-backed adaptation and mitigation efforts should support the work already being done on the ground to ensure that affected workers’ voices are amplified in the process of just transition, and also help bolster the participation of directly impacted local communities in decision-making. Through this collaborative approach of capacity building for climate action, South Sudan’s work towards a climate-resilient future can also be sustained and expanded.